MUDr. Dana Maňasková


Vyhledávání na medicinman.cz
 

Účinky jódu

Antioxidant

  • Laminaria brown algae contain an iodine concentration 300,000 times higher than any other living organism, and inorganic iodine acts as a scavenger of various reactive oxygen species (ROS)
  • Similar antioxidant effects have been described in other photosynthetic organisms
  • In some invertebrates
    • Polyps of the jellyfish Aurelia aurita
    • Urchin larvae
  • In vertebrates, micromolar amounts of iodine decrease damage by ROS
    • Increasing the total antioxidant status in rat and human serum
    • Preventing lipid peroxidation in the eyes of rabbits
    • In several tissues of vertebrates
  • Iodine released by deiodination of thyroxine
    • Antioxidant agent and an inhibitor of lipoperoxidation
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228

Molecular iodine supplements

  • Decrease lipid peroxidation in normal and tumor mammary tissues
    • From rats with methyl nitrosourea (MNU)-induced mammary cancer
  • Prevent the cardiac damage induced by the antineoplastic agent doxorubicin
    • I2 (0.05% in drinking water) administered 2 days before starting the antineoplastic treatment




  • Model of prostatic hyperplasia I2 supplements prevent
    • testosterone-induced oxidative stress
      • Decreasing lipoperoxidation
    • Inhibiting the activity of both nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and type 2 cyclooxygenase (Cox2)
  • I2 supplement also inhibit the formation of prostaglandins
    • With equivalent intensity to that observed with Celecoxib (a specific Cox2 inhibitor)
    • Cox2 inhibition can occur by
      • Deactivating the heme iron active site
      • Or as a competitor of its main substrate, arachidonic acid (AA)
      • Formation of 6-iodolactone (6-IL) from AA
        • Can decrease the formation of prostaglandins
          • 6-IL acts as a direct inhibitor of the enzyme
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228

  • Under basal conditions, Nrf2 is anchored to the cytoplasm through the actin cytoskeleton-binding protein 1 (Keap1)
    • Iodination of Keap1 results in the release and translocation of Nrf2 to the nucleus
    • Nrf2 heterodimerizes with small Maf proteins
      • Binds to the antioxidant response element (ARE)
        • SOD and Cat become overexpressed

Apoptóza

  • mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) is required for a variety of mitochondrial functions
    • protein import,
    • ATP production,
    • Regulation of metabolite transport
  • The mitochondrial intermembrane space contains proteins that can induce apoptosis
    • Caspases (e.g., cytochrome c)
    • Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF)
      • Execute a caspase-independent apoptotic death program
    • Antiapoptotic protein Survivin (SVV)
      • Release and degradation

Molecular iodine treatment

  • Accompanied by depletion of cellular thiol content
    • Dissipation of the MMP in estrogen-responsive (MCF-7) and non-responsive (MDA-MB-231) human cell lines
  • Pre-incubation of MCF-7 cells with N-acetylcysteine (NAC)
    • Prevents the apoptotic effect of I2
  • I2 treatment increased mitochondrial permeability in tumorozních bu. and decreased it in mimo tumorozních bu.
    • Suggesting a differential sensitivity toward iodine
  • Formation 6-IL (iodovaný derivát k. arachidonové) detected in thyroid tissue of rat, pig, horse, and human
    • Elevated prostaglandin levels in cancerous tissues compared to normal tissues
    • Prostaglandins are produced from AA by Cox2
      • Indicating high levels of AA in several tumors
  • MNU-induced tumors contain four times higher basal concentrations of AA
    • After 0.05% I2 treatment
      • 6-IL levels were 15-fold higher than in normal mammary tissue
        • Role for 6-IL in the antiproliferative effect of I2
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228

  • In human cancer cell lines where lipids like 6-IL were identified after I2 treatment
    • Addition of I2 or 6-IL triggered apoptosis
    • Cancer cells are more sensitive to I2 than normal cells
  • Propose that the high concentration of AA in tumoral cells is the crucial component that
    • When iodinated, is responsible for the antiproliferative effect of I2
  • Both I2 and 6-IL supplementation
    • Significantly modified the expression of PPARs
      • Originally associated with lipid metabolism regulation
      • Widely expressed
      • Part of the nuclear receptor family that binds thyroid hormones, steroids, and vitamins
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228



  • 6-IL is a specific agonist of PPAR gamma
    • In vitro affinity 6 times higher than AA
      • Increased by the conformational changes resulting from the incorporation of halogens
        • Phenyl acetate < phenyl butyrate < p-chlorophenyl acetate < p-iodophenyl butyrate)

I-

  • Appears to be more efficient than I2 in restoring the thyroid gland to normality in goiter stages

Excess of I-

  • Decreased iodine organification and hormonal secretion
  • Thyroglobulin proteolysis
  • Decreased glucose and amino acid transport
  • Decreased protein and RNA biosynthesis
  • Significant inhibition of thyrocyte proliferation under both in vitro and in vivo conditions
  • Multifaceted mechanism has been postulated
    • Transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-beta1)
    • Triiodothyronine (T3)
    • Iodolipids such as 6-IL or 2-iodohexadecanal (2-IHDA)
  • All the inhibitory actions of iodine can be reversed
    • With drugs that block the enzyme thyroid peroxidase (TPO), such as
      • Methylmercaptoimidazole (MMI)
      • Propylthiouracil (PTU)
  • The specific species of iodine generated by TPO has not been identified - there are several candidates
    • I-,
    • I0 (free radical of iodine)
    • IO- (hypoiodite)
    • I2
  • Excess of KI (10–50 mM)
    • Induces apoptosis in primary thyrocyte cells
    • But if TPO activity is blocked with PTU, the apoptotic effect of I- is eliminated
  • Lung cancer cells (without absorption of natural iodide) transfected with NIS or NIS/TPO
    • Supplement of KI (30 mM), induced apoptosis only in cells transfected with NIS/TPO
      • Indicating that oxidation of I- by TPO is required to exert apoptotic effects

Imunomodulace

  • Thymus, as well as many immune cells capture and metabolize iodine
  • Can act as an inhibitor or activator
  • Cell damage models induced by non-infectious agents
    • Iodine prevents the inflammatory response with a radical scavenging effect
  • Iodine promoted inhibition of
    • ROS production and oxygen consumption of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes
    • Neutrophil chemotaxis
    • Human complement
    • Mast cell degranulation
    • nitric oxide
    • TNF-alpha production by murine and human macrophages
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228

  • Iodine is oxidized by myeloperoxidase
    • Into free radical iodine and is used to kill bacteria
  • This ancestral defense mechanism has been documented in
    • Roseolovirus spp. bacteria as a defense against other species
  • Iodide supplementation increases
    • Granulocyte chemotaxis to inflamed areas
    • Improves phagocytosis of bacteria
  • Micromolar concentrations of iodine
    • Improve the Th2 response of leukocytes
      • Increasing the release of IL6, IL8-CXCL8 and IL10
  • Marani and Venturi described that in the central region of Italy, partial iodine deficiency (urinary excretion of 4 mg/day)
    • Enough to maintain euthyroid conditions
    • Accompanied by serious alterations in the immune response of school-age children
  • Lugol’s oral solution supplement (2 mg/week) for 8 months
    • Restored the normal immune response evaluated by skin tests
  • Similar responses to Lugol’s supplement in patients with infections in which the immune system was compromised
    • Such as granulomatous,
    • Lepromatous,
    • Syphilitic,
    • Fungal tuberculous lesions
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228

  • I2 the mediated activation or inhibition of immune responses depending on the cellular context
  • Cell damage environment without antigens
    • Iodine supplementation inhibits
      • Degranulation of neutrophil and mast cells
      • Production of macrophages NO and TNF alpha
  • In response to extracellular antigens (e.g., bacteria or fungi)
    • I2 improves the phagocytosis and chemotaxis of activated neutrophils
    • Activates the Th2 response
    • Increase of cytokine secretion (IL-6, IL-10, IL-8-CXCL8)
      • Promoting the activation and differentiation of Treg lymphocytes and M2 macrophages
  • Response to intracellular antigens (e.g., virus-infected cells and cancer cells)
    • I2 activates the Th1 response
    • Increases the cytokine production of IL-2 and IFNgamma
    • Promoting the activation and proliferation of effector cells (NK, CTL and M1 macrophages)
  • Differential response
    • Might be associated with epigenetic modifications
      • Facilitated by the I2-mediated activation of the demethylase enzyme (DMT3)
        • Regulates the Th fate by activating and/or inactivating the specific genes for the differentiation
          • Th1 (T-bet and STAT4) or Th2 (GATA3)
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228
  • I2 supplementation, alone or in co-administration with conventional chemotherapies
    • Accompanied by the activation of anti-tumor immune responses in several models (rodents, dogs and humans)
  • The remaining tumors from these treatments, which contain
    • Multiple necrotic areas, also show CD8+ immune cell infiltration

  • Micromolar supplementation of I2 improves the Th1 response in leukocytes from normal subjects
    • By increasing the release of IL2 and IFN-gamma cytokines
  • Activation of PPAR gama receptors might be involved
    • Participate in the modulation of several immune cells
  • PPAR gamma exerts anti-inflammatory responses on infections
    • Antitumoral immune response has also been suggested

  • I2 as an oxidized agent
    • Can exert epigenetic modifications associated with the activation of important demethylase enzymes like DMT3 (unpublished results)
  • Other natural antioxidants
    • resveratrol or curcumin, exert part of their effects by modifying the methylation/demethylation equilibrium genes for the differentiation
      • Th1 (T-bet and STAT4)
      • Th2 (GATA3)
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228

Toxicodynamics

  • Local
    • Iodine precipitates proteins
    • The affected cells may be killed
    • The effect is similar to that of a corrosive acid
  • Systemic
    • Acute inhibition of the synthesis of iodotyrosine and iodothyronine.
  • Topical
    • Bactericidal activity
    • 1% tincture will kill 90% of bacteria in 90 seconds
    • 5% tincture in 60 seconds and a 7% tincture in 15 seconds
  • Oral: The primary function of iodine
    • Control the rate of cellular oxidation through its presence in the biosynthesis of iodated thyroid hormone
  • Carcinogenicity:
    • There is no evidence as to whether iodine is carcinogenic or not.
    • Deliberate or inadvertent intake of radioactive elements or their compounds
      • Intake of labelled iodine and derivatives concentrating in the thyroid gland
        • Give rise to cancer in that organ
  • Teratogenicity:
    • Iodides diffuse across the placenta.
    • Infant and neonatal death from respiratory distress secondary to goitre has been reported in mothers taking iodides.
    • Chronic topical maternal use of povidone-iodine during pregnancy has been associated with clinical and biochemical hypothyroidism in the infant.
    • Exposure to iodine-131 can damage or ablate the developing thyroid of the human fetus.
    • Hypothyroidism, either congenital or of late onset
      • Reported in at least 5 children whose mothers were exposed to iodine-131 during pregnancy
  • Endocrine system effects:
    • Iodine and iodides produce goiter, hypothyroidism as well as hyperthyroidism
  • Side effects of iodine given for radioprotection:
    • Iodine induced goiter and iodine induced hypothyroidism special risk groups are
      • Fetus and neonates
    • Iodine induced hyperthyroidism special risk group are
      • People living in iodine deficient areas
      • People with a history of hyperthyroidism
  • Extrathyroidal side effects are
    • Gastrointestinal complaints (nausea, pain),
    • Taste abnormalities,
    • Cutaneous and mucous membrane such as irritation, rash, edema (including face and glottis),
    • Allergic like reactions such as
      • Fever, eosinophilia, serum sickness like symptoms, vasculitis
  • Special risk groups are patients with
    • Hypocomplementemic vasculitis
  • Allergic effects:
    • Whether iodine is administered topically or systematically
    • Iodine and iodides can give rise to allergic reactions:
      • Urticaria,
      • Angioedema,
      • Cutaneous hemorrhage or purpuras
      • Fever,
      • Arthralgia,
      • Lymphadenopathy
      • Eosinophila
      • Acne form or severe eruptions
  • Iodism effects:
    • A mild toxic syndrome called iodism results from repeated administration of small amount of iodine.
    • Iodism is characterised by
      • Hyper salivation,
      • Coryza,
      • Sneezing,
      • Conjunctivitis,
      • Headache,
      • Laryngitis,
      • Bronchitis,
      • Stomatitis,
      • Parotitis,
      • Enlargement of the submaxillary glands,
      • Skin rashes
      • Gastric upsets
  • In rare cases
    • Jaundice,
    • Bleeding from mucous membranes
    • Bronchospasm may occur
  • Inflammatory states
    • May be aggravated by these adverse reactions [10]

Antimikrobiální účinky

  • Iodine also exhibits fungicidal, cystocidal, antiprotozoal effect
  • Has activity against some spores [11]

Cellular Differentiation

  • Maintaining the integrity of thyroid epithelium
  • Studies associating iodine intake and thyroid cancer have led to controversy
  • Chronic iodine deficiency is firmly established as a risk factor for follicular thyroid cancer
  • Others suggested that iodine supplementation programs could increase the incidence of papillary thyroid cancer
    • In chronic iodine-deficient populations
  • Moderate iodine supplements
    • Prevent the transformation from differentiated to anaplastic thyroid cancer
      • The most aggressive type of thyroid cancer with a median survival of 4–12 months from the time of diagnosis
  • In vivo studies of mammary cancer (MNU-induced model, xenografts in the nu/nu Foxn1 mouse, and canine and human patients)
    • I2 treatment
      • Increases the expression of
        • NIS, PDS, LPO,
        • estrogen alpha receptors (ERalpha)
      • Reduces the invasive and metastatic inducers like
        • Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
        • Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA)
        • Bcl2,
        • SVV,
  • Indicating a consistent effect on differentiation
  • Similar results were obtained in trophoblast cells exposed to iodine supplementation
    • Increasing the synthesis of chorionic gonadotropin
  • Studies related to stemness markers in breast and cervical cancer cells
    • I2 supplementation decreased the stem cell-like population
    • Transforming the survival cells into non-invasive type cells incapable of generating xenografts
    • In both conditions PPARgamma receptors were increased

Complexes of iodine with polymers

  • Iodinol,
  • Iodanate,
  • Iodovidone,
  • Povidone-iodine,
  • Iodopyron,
  • Iodoform,
  • Hiniofon [11]
  • Are used as:
    • Antiseptics
    • Irrigation of tonsils in chronic tonsillitis
    • Purulent otitis media
    • Sinusitis
    • Keratitis
    • Furunculitis
    • Periodontitis fields [11]

Jód

  • Studies show it enhances healing - Dr. Myhill in her book The Infection Game – Life is an Arms Race.
    • Skin painted with iodine before incision does not get infected and heals perfectly.’
    • Considers iodine one of the tools that has revolutionized her practice
    • ‘Like vitamin C it contact-kills all microbes.
    • It is the only agent that is consistently active against
      • Gram positive
      • Gram-negative bacteria
      • Mycobacteria,
      • Spores,
      • Amoebic cysts,
      • Fungi,
      • Protozoa,
      • Yeasts,
      • Drug-resistant bacteria such as MRSA
      • Viruses [7]
  • Other papers have noted that evidence shows that iodine has a generally a 99.99 percent virus-killing activity against
    • Hepatitis A,
    • SARS (Sudden Acute Respiratory Syndrome) coronavirus Enterovirus 71
    • Coxsackievirus A16
    • Influenza [7]
  • ‘There is no virus that is resistant to iodine.’
    • Dr Myhill
  • World Health Organization
    • Includes iodine on its list of essential medicines.
  • Bugs don’t appear to have developed resistance to it [7]

Žaludek

  • Antioxidant properties, I- may act as an antimicrobial agent in saliva and gastric juice as well
  • In saliva, I- has been reported to enhance epidermal growth factor levels, which promotes mucosal healing and intestinal growth

Slinné žlázy

  • A bactericidal/bacteriostatic effect is consistent with the presence of an H2O2/peroxidase system
  • Duox2 mRNA was detected in salivary glands by in situ hybridization
  • H2O2 generated by this enzyme is used by lactoperoxidase (LPO)
    • A heme-dependent secreted peroxidase
    • Produced by the submucosal glands
    • Abundantly secreted in saliva
    • Oxidize SCN- (a NIS substrate) to hypothiocyanite (OSCN-)
      • Present in human saliva at micromolar concentrations

Stomach

  • NIS is expressed on the
    • Basolateral surface of mucin-secreting and parietal cells in the stomach
  • Basolateral surface of gastric mucosal cells
  • Mediates the active uptake of I- from the blood into the gastric epithelial cells
    • Secreted into the gastric juice
  • Gastric NIS plays no role in the absorption of dietary I-
  • Gastric NIS expression is downregulated in
    • Gastric cancer
    • Intestinal metaplasia
    • May be a marker for the diagnosis and possibly evaluation of the prognosis of stomach cancer patients.

Small intestine

  • NIS is also present in enterocytes of the small intestine
  • Dietary I- is absorbed
  • Km for Na+-dependent, ClO4--sensitive I- transport in small intestine
    • Comparable to that of thyroid cells ( 10mcM–30mcM)
  • Pertechnetate (TcO4-), a NIS substrate
    • Transported by the small intestine in a ClO4--sensitive manner in vivo
  • I- secreted into the saliva and the gastric juice is reabsorbed and recycled via NIS in the small intestine
    • Together with the dietary I- pool
  • Cl- channels and pendrin may be present in the intestine
    • These transporters have a Km for I- transport at least two orders of magnitude higher (in the mM range) than the concentration of I- in most foods.
  • SMVT
    • Transport I- with a Km of ~150mcM in voltage-clamped oocytes
    • Biotin transport at the brush border of enterocytes
  • Intestinal NIS expression is decreased by high I- in the diet
    • As it is in the thyroid
  • High I- downregulates NIS protein expression
    • I- uptake in the small intestine in a time-dependent manner in vivo
      • Rats treated with 0.05% KI in their drinking water
      • After 12 hours of high I- supplementation, NIS protein levels decreased by ~50% and after 24 hours by ~80%
  • It seems that NIS downregulation after high I- exposure
    • Is an autoregulatory mechanism to protect the thyroid or other I--transporting tissues

NIS mediates the translocation

  • I- víc než/rovno selenium cyanate (SeCN-) víc než thiocyanate (SCN-) víc než ClO3- víc než NO3-
  • Br-, BF4-, IO4-, and BrO3-- are also transported, but to a lesser extent
  • Maximal transport rate of ~80% of that of I-
  • Pertechnetate (TcO4-), which exists only as the metastable nuclear isomer 99mTcO4-, is also a NIS substrate
  • 99mTc is widely used in nuclear medicine
  • Perrhenate (ReO4-) as 188ReO4-
    • Attractive clinical use in the treatment of tumors expressing NIS endogenously or via gene transfer (Section IX.E.)
  • ClO4- - competitive NIS inhibitor and environmental pollutant

Kůže

  • The problem with the use of iodine
    • High concentrations it is toxic and irritates the skin and mucous membranes
    • Combination with polysaccharides and polymers, iodine significantly loses toxicity
      • Acts more slowly and longer (within 5 hours)
      • Maintaining antiviral and antimicrobial properties (Nikulin V.N., Gerasimenko V.V., 2008; Svirskaya E ., 2008)

MERS

  • After the outbreak of the MERS
  • A team from the Institute of Virology, Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology and the Philipps University of Marburg in Germany
    • Decided to carry out a study (Infect Dis Ther. 2015 Dec; 4(4): 491–501)
      • Using very low doses of iodine as a skin cleanser, a surgical scrub and a mouthwash gargle
        • Against two types of viruses: A Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) and the MERS virus.
  • In both instances, the team were able to inactivate levels of virus corresponding to more than 99.99 % [7]

Metabolické účinky jódu

  • Increases the lecithin-cholesterol coefficient
  • Lipoproteinase +
  • Fibrinolytic activity of the blood +
  • Slows down blood coagulation
  • Lowers cholesterol
  • Lowers beta-lipoproteins [11]

I2

  • As an oxidized component
    • Directly neutralizes free radicals
    • Induces the expression of type II antioxidant enzymes
    • Inactivates proinflammatory pathways
  • In neoplastic cells, I2
    • Generates iodolipids with nuclear actions
      • Activation of apoptotic pathways
      • Inhibition of markers related to stem cell maintenance, chemoresistance, and survival
  • I2 has been postulated as an immune modulator depending on the cellular context
    • Can function as an inhibitor or activator of immune responses
  • Molecular iodine increased in adults to at least 1 mg/day
    • In specific pathologies to obtain the potential extrathyroid benefits
  • Oxidized iodine can act as an
    • Electron donor neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS)
    • Attach to the double bonds of some polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes, making them less reactive to ROS
  • Iodine binds to lipids, such as arachidonic acid (AA)
  • Exerts apoptosis
  • Has differentiation effects on diverse epithelial cells
  • Iodine is uptaked and metabolized by immune cells
  • Can act as an anti-inflammatory or proinflammatory agent
    • Depend on the chemical form of iodine that is ingested
  • Is not reduced to iodide (I-) in the blood before being absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract
  • Induces differential effects
  • Its capture is 40% lower in the thyroid
  • I2 is more effective in decreasing mammary alterations secondary to iodine deficiency

I-

  • Appears to be more efficient than I2 in restoring the thyroid gland to normality in goiter stages
  • I2 (3–6 mg/day)
    • In patients with fibrocystic breast disease is accompanied by remission of symptoms, as well as significant anti-inflammatory effects
  • Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in preclinical and clinical models
  • In human patients with early BPH (Grade I and II)
    • Supplement of 5 mg/day of Lugol’s solution (mix 1:3; I2:KI) for 8 months
      • Decreased the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) circulating levels and improved the urinary flow and symptoms scale

I2

  • Chemical form responsible for antineoplastic effects
    • Originates from the first descriptions of the consumption of seaweed or Lugol’s solution
  • Seaweeds contain iodine in several chemical forms although the exact proportion is not known
  • LPO can oxidize natural or synthetic estrogens to catechol estrogens
    • Resulting estrogenic quinones have been shown to react with DNA to form mutagenic adducts
      • Can initiate or promote cancer
    • Higher levels of E2-DNA adducts are present in the urine of breast cancer patients and women at high risk for this disease
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228
  • Apoptosis effects of iodine in several cancer cell lines
    • Different mechanisms and pathways
    • Direct action
      • Oxidized iodine dissipates the mitochondrial membrane potential
        • Triggering mitochondrion-mediated apoptosis
    • Indirect effect
      • Iodolipids formation
      • Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors type gamma (PPARgamma)
  • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7865438/#B17-ijms-22-01228
  • Structural component of thyroid hormones
    • Essential for differentiation of the nervous system during development
    • Crucial regulators of energetic metabolism
  • Public health policies have been established to guarantee that populations consume the required amount of iodine to eradicate iodine deficiency disorders.
    • International Council for Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (ICCIDD)
      • Recommended dietary allowance of iodine is 150–299 mcg/day for normal thyroid functioning
      • Maximum limit of iodine intake with the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) is 1700–1800 mcg/day
  • 1988, the joint of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
    • Suggested the maximal upper level from all iodine sources of 1 mg/day would be safe for most of the population
      • Except those with iodine sensitivity or underlying thyroid disorders
  • Increased intake of iodide can have interactions with medications
    • lithium
    • Sulfisoxazole
    • But similar studies with molecular iodine do not exist
  • Several studies report that iodine supplements at moderately high concentration
    • Are well tolerated in euthyroid subjects
    • Only high doses (over 30 mg/day), mainly as I-, generate hypothyroidism and goiter
      • Which rapidly revert to normal when these individuals stop taking iodine at high concentrations
  • Physiopathology of various organs that uptake it, mainly
    • Thyroid, mammary, prostate, pancreas, and ovaries, and potentially in the gastric, immune, and nervous systems
  • In molecular form, iodine acts as an antioxidant throughout the body
    • If ingested at concentrations higher than 1 mg/day
  • Dose-response studies in humans have demonstrated that I2 at concentrations of 1 to 6 mg/day
    • Exhibited significant beneficial actions in benign pathologies like
      • Fibrocystic breast disease
      • Prostatic hyperplasia
      • Polycystic ovaries (unpublished results)
  • The treatments in these studies lasted from five weeks up to two years
    • Did not have any side effects at these concentrations
  • Some of the dose-response studies analyzed the highest concentration of iodine (9 and 12 mg/day)
    • Showed the same benefits
    • Accompanied, in some cases, by transient hypothyroidism
    • Minor side effects like headache, sinusitis, acne or diarrhea
    • Effects disappeared when the high dose of supplemental iodine was suspended
  • Antineoplastic action of the I2 supplement
    • Without harmful effects on the thyroid has also been observed in
      • Mammary and prostatic pathologies in preclinical (rodents and canines) and clinical protocols
  • Thyroid captures 40% less I2 than I-
  • Acceptable upper limits for iodine intake during pregnancy are not well defined
    • Consequences of excess iodine in newborns are not well documented
    • Iodine intake in any of its forms above the upper limits is not recommended in pregnant women or infants.

O úroveň výše

Poslední aktualizace: 27. 11. 2020 16:19:12